Impact of the Public Sector Reform on Employee Relations Essay Example for Free

Impact of the Public Sector Reform on Employee Relations Essay In the 1950s to the 1960s, the Conservative government of Britain had a strong compulsion to adopt a neoliberal stance on economic policies. Certain industries which were nationalized by the Labour Party after the Second World War were privatized. State spending on health, education, and welfare were cut; this was so since too much spending would necessarily result in low economic performance of the whole country (although variation was possible). Military spending were doubled to contribute to the overall economic output of the country. This was continued during the leadership of Lady Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990) and her successors. Nevertheless, although allowing a significant reduction of government spending in the welfare sector, the Conservative government instituted some reforms to upgrade government programs on health and the bureaucracy itself. The Local Government Act of 1993, Health Care Complaints Act of 1993, the Parliamentary Commissioner Act of 1994, the Local Government Act of 1974, were some of the examples of the readiness of the Conservative government to put efficiency and cost effectiveness the emblem of a government in service (to the people). These acts passed by the Conservative government were meant to streamline the bureaucracy, increase the powers of the local governments (establishment of new boroughs and counties), extend the powers of the parliamentary Commissioner in investigating cases involving local authorities, improve the health care service by allowing the private sector to invest in government health programs, and put a mechanism to effectively negotiate grievances in the government and its related entities (like government owned corporations). These programs and policies were meant to create a bureaucracy with the intense participation of the private sector. They were programs economic in character. Programs were directed to the service of the public but with the capital from foreign and private individuals playing as the motor of development. The image of these programs seemed to be a positive one; intense partnership between the government and the private sector in the service of the public. With the coming of the Labour party in power, some changes were presented in the halls of the parliament. There was a step to extend the jurisdiction of the Parliamentary Commissioner in matters allowed by parliament (the three Ombudsmen – the Parliamentary Ombudsman, Local Government Ombudsmen, and the Health Service Ombudsman). An act was established also established to increase public sector employment; a move almost totally ignored by the Conservative government in the 1960s. It is expected that due to the changes hitherto described above public sector employment would increase by 360, 000 in the next three years, and almost a million in the following decade. The number of teachers, doctors, nurses, physical therapists, and policemen increase by more than 100, 000. An increase would be expected in other professions (which is around 200, 000). Although a general cut was implemented by the Labour government in the civil service programs, they were compensated by an additional increase of public sector employees. In sum, the reduction was implemented to increase public sector employment since public sector employment is one of the most effective ways of boosting economic performance (due to its manageability). Needless to say, however, these changes proposed or implemented by both the Conservative and Labour governments of Britain have had certain effects or impacts on employee relations. The Health Service Act implemented by the Conservative government proposed a two-valorem system of negotiation between complaints presented by the two parties involved. This action proved to be not very effective as a conflict resolution mechanism for employees. The present Labour government established a so-called conciliator with the aim of: a) to bring the parties involved together for the general purpose of negotiation and settlement of complaint, b) to create activities deemed possible for the attainment of a settlement, and c) to assist the parties involved to reach for a fair agreement. This three-party system of negotiation (which were imitated by other countries) became an effective force in resolving conflicts in the public sector (the employees). The number of resolved cases or agreements had increased since the coming of the Labour Party in power, a huge debacle for the opposition. The creation of metropolitan boroughs and counties made by the Conservative government (acts enumerated above) had also some impact on employee. It fairly promoted intense economic activity in these new districts. Public sector employment had a slight increase. Herein, therefore, it became the duty of the government to institute a law which will protect the interests of the public sector employees. The creation of the Parliamentary Commissioner Act of 1967 and an amended bill in 1974 defined the limits of the Ombudsmen in reviewing cases or complaints presented to them by government employees (against local authorities or other employees). The effect was good for the public sector employees since the number of complaints and perceived problems in the government bureaucracy was reduced. This was not really a good measurement of performance since the number of public sector employees at that time was small; the civil service jobs share in the total number of jobs was about 62 %. Due to the increasing number of public sector employees, the Labour government refined the laws mentioned above. The Ombudsmen were granted right by the parliament to investigated cases independently, with more flexibility and rigour. A general program of action was also presented by the Home Secretary to reform the Parliamentary Commissioner, giving the latter some air of independence when reviewing not only cases involving possible crime committed by members of parliament) to the general public but also to the increasingly significant public sector employees. It was recognized that delays would be averted if this plan of action was implemented, and therefore a possible amiable relationship between employees result. Nevertheless, a revised attached code of ethics was also created to define the limits, behavior, and general attitude of government and public sector employees to lessen if not avoid conflict or mismanagement of delegated or defined duties. The Labour Party in the present can boast of its success both in streamlining the bureaucracy (same policy of the Conservative Party in the 1950s to the 1960s) and providing a ground base of cordial public sector employment system (employment and conflict resolution). One public sector employee noted that the propensity or possibility of having conflict with her peers appears to be zero. This is one indication of the success that the Labour Party can present to the general public. However, such conclusion is not totally accurate. The Conservative Party was able to create brilliant programs that were responsible for the increase in the public sector employment. The program of devolution gave the local governments the right to shape the economic policy of the districts involved. The air of supra liberalism during the Conservative years promoted intense migration from Third world countries. The public sector itself became a hotspot for foreign nationals, of which the British public can depend for their special services. It seemed from the start that conflicts will generally increase because of the heterogeneous character of the public sector employees, but the speculators proved wrong. The code of ethics prepared by the British MP’s became a great piece of political scourge to the Labour Party. Not only that conflicts decreased in the government and the public sector decreased, the ruling government experienced a high trust rating from the two sectors, and of course a high applause from the business sector. The consecutive electoral victories of the Conservative Party (during the leadership of Margaret Thatcher) proved the case. Nevertheless, certain variables have to be considered when reviewing electoral victories for it is itself a locus of different circumstances of advantages. There is one great difference, however, when we talk of the Conservative and Labour policies on public sector employees. It is generally accepted that impersonality should be the hallmark of a bureaucracy and of course the whole economic activity of the country. In the Conservative years, impersonality was always implemented in the government, with strict penalties for noncompliance. However, government officials were not aware that the policies they implemented (as enumerated above) had certain effect on the public sector employees. Employees became resonant of public policy. They became more politically involved in public discussions. And as such, became more impersonal in their dealings with the government and their clients. Economic activity, according to one economist, may well be possible under the environment of impersonality and laxity of economic requirements. This became a starting step for Britain to increase its migration rate. The increasing number of public sector employees heralded a change or revision in the policies of the Labour Party in terms of public sector employment. As mentioned above, the proposed and implemented policies on negotiation and extension of powers of the types of Ombudsmen were generally meant to increase the efficiency of the government to solve disputes arising between employee and employee, employee and employer, and between employee and government officials. Remember that the public sector had increased because of migration. The current composition of the public sector employees deserve a more efficient and complex system of work arrangements. This was generally only an adaptation made by the ruling government, since the composition of the public sector employees during the 1950s to the 1970s is generally different from today. Nonetheless, only two factors in the public sector employees that became the point of reference of a government in power: its size and composition. Although this may be a narrow generalization, the circumstances that followed afterwards prove such assertion.

Different Translation Theories

Different Translation Theories Translation is to render the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. The translation cannot simply reproduce, or be, the original. The first business of the translator is to translate. There is a body of knowledge about translation which, if applied to solving translation problems, can contribute to a translators training. Everything without exception is translatable. There is no such a thing as a perfect, ideal or correct translation. In a narrow sense, translation theory is concerned with the translation method appropriately used for a certain type of text. In a wide sense, translation theory is the body of knowledge that we have about translation. Translation theory is concerned with minute as well as generalities, and both may be equally important in the context. à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ KEYWORDSà £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ËœTranslation, Theory, Application, Literature Contents Contents II 1 Introduction 1 1.2 The function of translation 1 2 Different Types of Translation Theories 2 3 The Application in Literature Translation 7 4 Implication and Conclusion 11 4.1 Implication 11 4.2Conclusion 12 References 12 Introduction 1.1What the translation is Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated. Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations. Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers have sought to automate translation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation). The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localization. 1.2 The function of translation (1) Translation is a means of communication; (2) Translation is instrumental in transmitting culture; (3) Translation is also a transmitter of the truth; (4) Translation is a technique for learning foreign languages. 1.3 What a translation theory does is (1) to identify and define a translation problem (2) to indicate all the factors that have to be taken into account in solving the problem (3) to list all the possible translation procedures (4) to recommend the most suitable translation procedure, plus the appropriate translation. 1.4 Translation Methods The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument was theoretical. Now the context has changed, but the basic problem remains. The Methods are as follows: Word-for-word translation Literal translation Faithful translation Semantic translation Adaptation Free translation Idiomatic translation Communicative translation In all those above, only semantic and communicative translation fulfill the two main aims of translation: accuracy and economy. In general, a semantic translation is written at the authors linguistic level, a communicative at the readerships. Semantic translation is used for expressive texts, communicative for informative and vocative texts. So, next we talk about the equivalent effect. Equivalent effect (produce the same effect) is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any translation. In the communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential. In informative texts, equivalent effect is desirable only in respect of their insignificant emotional impact. The more cultural a text, the less is equivalent effect even conceivable. Different Types of Translation Theories 2.1 Literal Translation According to the linguistic theory of discourse analysis, any deviation from literal translation van be justified in any place appealing to the text as an overriding authority. In fact, literal translation is correct and must not be avoided, if it secures referential and pragmatic equivalence to the original. Literal translation is different from word-to-word and one-to-one translation. Literal translation ranges from one word to one word, group to group, collocation to collocation, clause to clause, sentence to sentence. It is to be the basic translation procedure, both in communicative and semantic translations, I that translation starts from there. The translation of poetry is the field where most emphasis is normally put on the creation of a new independent poem, and where literal translation is usually condemned. However, a translation van be inaccurate, it can never be too literal. We must not be afraid of literal translation. For a TL word which looks the same or nearly the same as the SL word, there are more faithful friends than faux aims (false friends).Everything is translatable up to a point, but there are often enormous difficulties. We do translate words, because there is nothing else to translate. We do not translate isolated words, we translate words all more or less bound by their syntactic, collocational, situational cultural and individual idiolect contexts. Elegant variations on literal or one-to-one translation are common, but they may not be justified in semantic or even communicative translation. The validity of literal translation can sometimes be established by the back-translation test. The back-translation test is not valid in the case of SL or TL lexical gaps. Some institutional terms are translated literally even though the TL cultural equivalents have widely different functions. Some concept-words are translated literally and often misleading, as their local connotations are often different. There are all kinds of insidious resistances to literal translation. It is sometimes advisable to retreat from literal translation when faced with SL general words for which there are no satisfactory one-to-one TL equivalents even though one is over-translating. That is the so called Natural Translation. Literal translation is the first step in translation. Re-creative translation is possible, but interpret the sense, not the words is the translators last resort. The modern literary translator continually pursue what is to them more natural, more colloquial than the original. But Their idiomatic English may be in flagrant contrast with a neutral original. 2.2 Traditional Chinese Translation Theory Chinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translating from specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition. In those five regions, the languages of the people were not mutually intelligible, and their likings and desires were different. To make what was in their minds apprehended, and to communicate their likings and desires, (there were officers), in the east, called transmitters; in the south, representationists; in the west, Tà ®-tà ®s; and in the north, interpreters. (à §Ã… ½Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¥Ã‹â€ Ã‚ ¶ The Royal Regulations, tr. James Legge 1885 vol. 27, pp. 229-230) A Western Han work attributes a dialogue about translation to Confucius. Confucius advises a ruler who wishes to learn foreign languages not to bother. Confucius tells the ruler to focus on governance and let the translators handle translation. The earliest bit of translation theory may be the phrase names should follow their bearers, while things should follow China. In other words, names should be transliterated, while things should be translated by meaning. In the late Qing Dynasty and the Republican Period, reformers such as Liang Qichao, Hu Shi and Zhou Zuoren began looking at translation practice and theory of the great translators in Chinese history. 2.3 Asian Translation Theory There is a separate tradition of translation in South Asia and East Asia (primarily modern India and China), especially connected with the rendering of religious texts particularly Buddhist texts and with the governance of the Chinese empire. Classical Indian translation is characterized by loose adaptation, rather than the closer translation more commonly found in Europe, and Chinese translation theory identifies various criteria and limitations in translation. In the East Asia Sinosphere (sphere of Chinese cultural influence), more important than translation per se has been the use and reading of Chinese texts, which also had substantial influence on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese languages, with substantial borrowings of vocabulary and writing system. Notable is Japanese Kanbun, which is a system of glossing Chinese texts for Japanese speakers. 2.4 Western Translation Theory Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The ancient Greeks distinguished between metaphrase (literal translation) and paraphrase. This distinction was adopted by English poet and translator John Dryden (1631-1700), who described translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, counterparts, or equivalents, for the expressions used in the source language. When words appear literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since what is beautiful in one language is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his authors words: tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense. This general formulation of the central concept of translation equivalence is as adequate as any that has been proposed since Cicero and Horace, who, in 1st-century-BCE Rome, famously and literally cautioned against translating word for word (verbum pro verbo). Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents literal where possible, paraphrastic where necessary for the original meaning and other crucial values (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context. In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure. The grammatical differences between fixed-word-order languages (e.g. English, French, German) and free-word-order languages (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard. When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed those terms, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few concepts that are untranslatable among the modern European languages. Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actual (present, current), the Polish aktualny (present, current), or the Russian à Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ãƒâ€˜Ã†â€™Ãƒ Ã‚ °Ãƒ Ã‚ »Ãƒâ€˜Ã…’à Ã‚ ½Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹ (urgent, topical). The translators role as a bridge for carrying across values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translators role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that Translation is a type of drawing after life Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnsons remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon. If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages, as well as the science that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether. The translator of the Bible into German, Martin Luther, is credited with being the first European to posit that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language. L.G. Kelly states that since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, it has been axiomatic that one translates only toward his own language. Compounding the demands on the translator is the fact that no dictionary or thesaurus can ever be a fully adequate guide in translating. The British historian Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the spoken language, had earlier, in 1783, been made by the Polish poet and grammarian Onufry Andrzej KopczyÅ„ski. The translators special role in society is described in a posthumous 1803 essay by Polands La Fontaine, the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek, Ignacy Krasicki: Translation is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; it should be [practiced] by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render their country. Serious Literature Translation Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four forms, no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance. And if the word is the first unit of meaning, the second is not the sentence or the proposition, but usually the line, thereby demonstrating a unique double concentration of units. The translator can boldly transfer the image of any metaphor where it is known in the TL language. Original metaphors have to be translated accurately, even if in the target language culture the image is strange and the sense it conveys may only be guessed. Sound-effects are bound to come last for the translator. The translation of Short Story/Novel: From a translators point of view, the short story is, of literary forms, the second most difficult, but he is released from the obvious constraints of poetry meter and rhyme. Further, since the line is no longer a unit of meaning, he can spread himself a little his version is likely to be somewhat longer than the original though, always, the shorter the better. The translation of the Drama: A translator of drama inevitably has to bear the potential spectator in mind. A translation of a play must be concise it must not be an over-translation. He must word the sentence in such a way that the sub-text is equally clear. He must translate into the modern target language. When a play is transferred from the SL to the TL culture it is usually no longer a translation, but an adaptation. Some kind of accuracy must be the only criterion of a good translation in the future what kind of accuracy depending first on the type and then the particular text that has been translated. The Application in Literature Translation 3.1The Definition of Literature Translation Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. For example, notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators are figures such as Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson and Linda Gaboriau, and the Governor Generals Awards annually present prizes for the best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations. Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include Vasily Zhukovsky, Tadeusz Boy-Ã…Â »eleÅ„ski, Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Robert Stiller and Haruki Murakami. 3.2 Brief Comparison of the Application of Western and Eastern Theories The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures. Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. The 9th-century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular Anglo-Saxon translations of Bedes Ecclesiastical History and Boethius Consolation of Philosophy. Meanwhile the Christian Church frowned on even partial adaptations of St. Jeromes Vulgate of ca. 384 CE,the standard Latin Bible. In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render. Large-scale efforts at translation were undertaken by the Arabs. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, some translations of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Cà ³rdoba in Spain. Such Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance the development of European Scholasticism. The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language. 3.3 The Application of Asian and European Translation Theories The first fine translations into English were made in the 14th century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knights Tale and Troilus and Criseyde; began a translation of the French-language Roman de la Rose; and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin. Chaucer founded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier-established literary languages. The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malorys Le Morte Darthur-an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners version of Jean Froissarts Chronicles (1523-25). Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Platos works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus. Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on adaptation. Frances Plà ©iade, Englands Tudor poets, and the Elizabethan translators adapted themes by Horace, Ovid, Petrarch and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The English poets and translators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of a middle class and the development of printing, with works such as the original authors would have written, had they been writing in England in that day. 3.4 Recent Development and Application of Western Translation Theory The Elizabethan period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere paraphrase toward an ideal of stylistic equivalence, but even to the end of this period, which actually reached to the middle of the 17th century, there was no concern for verbal accuracy. In the second half of the 17th century, the poet John Dryden sought to make Virgil speak in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman. Dryden, however, discerned no need to emulate the Roman poets subtlety and concision. Similarly, Homer suffered from Alexander Popes endeavor to reduce the Greek poets wild paradise to order. Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or-as in the case of James Macphersons translations of Ossian-from texts that were actually of the translators own composition. The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text, except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanatory footnotes. In regard to style, the Victorians aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGeralds Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original. In advance of the 20th century, a new pattern was set in 1871 by Benjamin Jowett, who translated Plato into simple, straightforward language. Jowetts example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion. 3.5 The Application of Serious Literature Translation Poetry presents special challenges to translators, given the importance of a texts formal aspects, in addition to its content. In his influential 1959 paper On Linguistic Aspects of Translation, the Russian-born linguist and semiotician Roman Jakobson went so far as to declare that poetry by definition is untranslatable. In 1974 the American poet James Merrill wrote a poem, Lost in Translation, which in part explores this idea. The question was also discussed in Douglas Hofstadters 1997 book, Le Ton beau de Marot; he argues that a good translation of a poem must convey as much as possible of not only its literal meaning but also its form and structure (meter, rhyme or alliteration scheme, etc.). In 2008, Taiwanese linguist Grace Hui Chin Lin suggests communication strategies can be applied by oral translators to translate poetry. Translators with cultural backgrounds can oral translate poetry of their nations. For example, poetry of Tung dynasty can be introduced to people outside of Chinese communities by oral translation strategies. Also, several communication strategies for facilitating communicative limitations are applicable as oral translation strategies for interpreting poetries. Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language sometimes called singing translation is closely linked to translation of poetry because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, though popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stannic forms with or without refrains.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as the German chorales translated into English by Catherine Wink worth. Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line. Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests and/or punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to the original language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or completely different from the original, thus resulting in a contrafactum. Translations of sung texts whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles or surtitles projected during opera performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing. Implication and Conclusion Implication n the 1970s a literary approach to translation theory began to emerge, partly as a response to the prescriptive linguistic theories that had monopolized thinking for the previous two decades. Key elements of this new literary approach are the writings of the Manipulation School; systems theories; and Gideon Tourys descriptive translation studies (DTS), which tries to identify laws in translation, of which Itamar Even-Zohars Polysystem Theory (PS) forms a vital part (Nam Fung Chang). At the Leuven Conference in 1976, Even-Zohar presented a paper entitled The Position of Translated Literature in the Literary Polysystem where he considers the position of translated literature within the literary, cultural and historical contexts of the target culture. He does not advocate the study of individual translations, but rather views the body of translated works as a system working within and reacting to a literary system, which, in turn, is working within and reacting to the historical, social and cultural systems of the particular target audience. Therefore, there is a system within a system within a system i.e. the polysystem. The notion of system does, perhaps, need some clarification at this point. Literature viewed as a system can be traced back to Russian Formalist thinking of the 1920s when Yury Tynjanov is credited with being the first person to describe literature in these terms (Hermans, 1999, 104). Translated literature itself is also considered to operate as a system in at least two ways firstly in the way that the TL chooses works for translation, and secondly in the way translation methodology varies according to the influence of other systems (Munday, 2001 109). Even-Zohar himself emphasizes the fact that translated literature functions systemically: I conceive of translated literature not only as an integral system within any literary polysystem but as an active system within it. (1976, 200). Translation theory shares a number of concerns with what is commonly called communication theory. Perhaps the most important observation which the communication theorists have produced for translators is the recognition that every act of communication has three dimensions: Speaker (or author), Message, and Audience. The more we can know about the original author, the actual message produced by that author, and the original audience, the better acquainted we will be with that particular act of communication. An awareness of this tri-partite character of communication can be very useful for interpreters. Assuming that an act of communication is right now taking place, as you read what I wrote, there are three dimensions to this particular act of communication: myself, and what I am intending to communicate; the actual words which are on this page; and what you understand me to be saying. When the three dimensions converge, the communication has been efficient. 4.2Conclusion Different theories show different meanings. While not everyone who drives an automobile needs to understand the theory behind the internal combustion engine, someone does need to know this theory. I may be able to drive my Pontiac without any knowledge of internal combustion engines, until the Pontiac breaks down. Then, I must find someone (presumably a mechanic) who does in fact know enough theory to get the Pontiac running again. The same is true of translation theory. It is not necessary for everyone to know translation theory, nor is it even necessary for pastors and teachers to know everything about translation theory. It is necessary for pastors and teachers in the American church at the end of the twentieth century to know something about translation theory, for two reasons. First, it will affect the way we interpret the Bible for our people. If we are completely unaware of translation theory, we may unwittingly mislead our brothers and sisters in our interpretation. Second, there are so many English translations available, that

The Digital Dice Game Project: An Overview

The Digital Dice Game Project: An Overview A traditional dice is a small polyhedral object, usually cubic in shape. It generates a random number in the range of one to six. There are also non cubical dice with different number of faces such as tetrahedrons (four faces), octahedrons (eight faces) or dodecahedrons (twelve faces). A digital dice is an alternative device that can be used to replace the traditional device with the help of a numeric display. It is controlled with the help of a switch. The count will display numbers randomly from one to six on the 7 segment display in a push of the button. 1.1 Rules of the Game: The Digital Dice game consists of two players, Player A and Player B. Both the players, Player A and Player B, are given a switch each to control the dice. In this game, only one player is allowed to play at a time and the input of only one player is counted at a time. A LED indicates the players turn. The output of each players throw is added to the output of their previous throws number. This gives their final score. The maximum count is taken as 30. When any one of the players reaches the maximum count of 30, the Game ends. The player (Player A or Player B) has won the game. The beeper along with a light indicates the players victory. Chapter 2:  Circuit Description This chapter gives a detailed description of the block diagram for the Digital Dice game project. It discusses the main parts and also gives a detailed explanation on the same. 2.1 Block Diagram The main parts of the block diagram as shown in figure 1 are: 2 Clock pulses Random Number Generator Digital Dice Display 2 Adder Circuits (including the seven segment FND display) Game Over disabling circuit Reset switch 2.2 Clock Pulse Clock pulse is a signal used to synchronize the operations of an electronic system. They are continuous and precisely spaced changes in voltage. The main aim of this part in the circuit is to give the appropriate clock pulses to the next circuits to make a progress in the game. For this purpose, 2 clocks have been employed for each player. Here a special circuit has to be employed so as not to allow the player that has already played to play until his opponent has had his chance. This is done by using the Toggling feature of J-K flip-flop (IC 7476). Each of the 2 clock pulses is then ANDED with the 2 outputs of J-K flip-flop which is Q and Q. At any point of time, only one of Q and Q will be HIGH and so only one player will be able to play at a time as per the rules of the game. The clock of the other player being ANDED with zero will be ineffective. The appropriate clock then will pass through the OR gate and into the input clock of the J-K flip-flop, thus toggling it and providing a chance for the other player to play. The output of the OR gate is given to the rest of the entire circuit as a common clock. 2.3 Random Number Generator The main aim of this part is to generate any number between 1 and 6 (inclusive) i.e. 3-bit binary number, similar to a cubic dice where each face represents a number. However, the number generated in this circuit is not in any kind of a predictable sequence and is in a perfectly random similar to an actual dice in such a game. This is facilitated by the use of IC NE-555, which generates series of output clock pulses. The resistors and capacitors surrounding it formulate a particular RC time constant and the IC then continues to generate output clock pulses till the end of this time period. So, when the appropriate clock pulse is obtained from the above discussed clock pulse circuit, the pulses generated by IC NE-555 are fed to the next Integrated Circuit, Binary Ripple Counter (IC 7493). Another Integrated Circuit, Decade Counter (IC 7490) can also be used. The Binary Ripple Counter counts from 0 to 5 i.e. 3-bit numbers provided the MSB (Most significant Bit) of the counter is not considered. After the count reaches five, the Counter resets to zero. When many clock pulses are received by it in a single time-constant period, it counts from 0-5 many times and outputs any of these numbers. This is known as Random Number Generation. However, the numbers obtained from the above procedure are between 0 and 5 (inclusive) and the desired numbers are from 1 6. This is taken into account by including another Integrated circuit, Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483) which increments the above generated number by 1 as it is between 0 and 5. The output of the Binary Parallel Adder is the final desired random number which is then fed into the Digital Dice-Display circuit as shown in the figure 1. 2.4 Digital Dice Display Circuit The only purpose of this part is to show the face of the Dice corresponding to the number generated by the randomizer circuit. This is done with the help of a BCD 7 Segment decoder which is used to drive a common anode 7 segment display. The output of the above discussed circuit forms the input for the BCD which then enters the input of seven segment decoder. The random number generated by the random number generator circuit will be displayed on the 7 segment display when the button is pushed by a player. The number displayed is any number between 1to 6 in a complete random sequence. 2.5 Adder Circuits This is the core part of this game. All the numbers generated so far should be accounted for each player independently in the form of their score. As discussed earlier, this score gets incremented by each alternate fall of numbers on the dice. The Adder circuit performs this function. The Adder circuit is made up of a group of 3 AND gates. One of the inputs of the AND gates is a bit of the random number generation and the other input is one of Q and Q (outputs of the J K flip-flop as discussed above in the Clock Pulses section). Hence, at a time, the score of only the appropriate player gets incremented by the number on the dice. Whereas the score of the other player remains the same (i.e. gets added by 0). The outputs of the 3 AND gates enter the Integrated Circuit, Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483) as inputs for A. The Most significant bit (MSB) A is kept grounded. The inputs for B come from the output of the Integrated circuit, 4-bit Register (IC 74194) and these stores the Least significant bit (LSB) of the final score. There are two Binary Parallel Adders and the output of this 1st Adder (IC 7483) is connected to the 2nd Adder (IC 7483), which converts the added binary number into its decimal equivalent and stores the output in the above mentioned 4 Bit register (IC 74194). This conversion is produced with the help of different logic gates (AND and OR gates). When the binary number is greater than 9, 6 (0110) is added to it, else 0 (0000) is added to the number thus generating the equivalent LSB decimal number. Therefore, the LSB remains less than or equal to 9, thus representing the score in decimal form. The same technique is applied to the Most Significant Bit of the score. Here, 1 is added to the MSB of the Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483), if the above generated binary number is greater than 9. The other input for this 3rd IC-7483 comes from another 4-bit register (IC 74194). Therefore, the MSB can also show decimal numbers from 0 9. The same Most Significant Bit and Least Significant Bit numbers from the Adders are given as input to Integrated circuit, BCD (IC 7447), which is the driver IC to the Seven-Segment LED display. The outputs of this Integrated circuit are fed into the LT-543, to show the corresponding numbers. An important point to be noted here is that the same common clock is given to the above mentioned IC-74194 registers so that they can output the stored numbers each time. 2.6 Game Over Disabling Circuit This part of the block diagram indicates the END of the game, i.e. Game Over. The game is considered to be over once the score of any one of the two players (Player A or Player B) reaches/crosses the score of 30. The second input of the Most Significant Bits of the Most Significant Bit of the decimal score of both the players form the input to the NOR gate. Thus, when any score reaches/crosses 30, the 2nd Most Significant Bit becomes HIGH. Thus NOR output becomes LOW (i.e. In a NOR gate, when any one of the inputs is HIGH, the output is LOW). This is then ANDED with the clock-pulse to be given to the J-K flip-flop. As a result, the J-K flip-flop does not receive any clock. Thus, the toggling feature of the flip flop stops. Thus, the random number generation stops and the Dice-display remain unchanged. And, finally the scores remain fixed. Therefore, the game has come to an end The winning player (Player A or Player B) is identified by the tone of the buzzer/alarm along with a LED to provide an indicating light. This is having one end on the above 2nd Most Significant Bit and the other end grounded. 2.7 Reset Switch This is also a very important part of the game. The function of this switch is to bring the game back to start from any point of time. This is performed with the help of a Combinational Circuit and a Push-to-OFF switch. This is a kind of switch which has its 2 ends always connected, except when pressed/pushed. Thus, one end of the switch is grounded. Therefore, by default this makes the clear inputs of all registers HIGH. Here, the registers employ Active Low Clear inputs. When the switch is not pushed, HIGH clear is fed to the registers via a NOT gate. Therefore, normal functioning of all the registers is obtained. Also, the output drawn from the OR gate then depends on the output from the AND gate (the 2 inputs of the AND gate come from the 2nd Most Significant Bit and 3rd Most Significant Bit of the output of the Binary Ripple Counter, IC 7493). When the switch is pressed, the connection of its 2 ends gets broken and thus making the Clear input to all registers LOW via the NOT gate (i.e. all registers are cleared). Therefore, one of the inputs to the IC 7483 Adders become 0000. And, also the input of the OR gate becomes HIGH, thereby ignoring the 2nd input and thus providing HIGH output to the RO(1) Clear input of the Binary ripple counter, IC 7493. Now, the counter is reset by 2nd Clear input RO(2) as it becomes HIGH, providing 0000 output. This forms the other input of Binary parallel adder, IC 7483. Thus, the Adder circuits display 00 in the 7 segment display. This 0000 output is then carried via the Binary parallel adder, IC 7483 (here the input carry is also 0) to the Dice-display circuit which displays 00. Chapter 3:  Random Number Generation Circuit This chapter explains the circuit diagram required for the random number generation and the digital dice display. It also talks about the working for the same. 3.1 Circuit Diagram The below figure (figure 2) shows the circuit diagram used for the random number generation of a digital dice. 3.2 Operation Figure 2 shows the circuit diagram to generate any random number between 1 and 6 and display it on the 7 segment display. In operation, a clock frequency of 50 Hz is generated by the pulse generator. It is ANDED with the push button. When the push button is pressed, the clock pulse generates a series of clock pulses. The combination of the clock pulse and the push button forms the counter clock for the Binary Ripple Counter (IC 7493). This counter behaves as a Mod 6 Counter and it counts from 0 5. Once the count reaches 5, it resets to zero. Thus, the connection of QB (with value 2) to R0 (1) and QC (with value 4) to R0(2) respectively. The output of this counter is connected to the input A of the Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483), i.e. QA, QB, QC, QD to A1, A2, A3, A4 respectively. The function of the adder is to add the number 1 (Binary 0001) to the output from the Binary ripple counter. This is done by grounding the pins B1, B2, B3 and the pin B4 is connected to the supply to get a value of 1. The output of the Adder is connected to the BCD 7 segment display, i.e. the pins 9, 6, 12, 15 are connected to pins 7, 1, 2, 6 respectively. Therefore, any number between 1 and 6 is displayed in a totally random manner in the form of its decimal equivalent on the 7 segment display. This completes the random number generation and the Digital dice display parts of the block diagram. 3.3 Components Assembled The following components have been assembled on a Bread Board in order to create a random number display between 1 and 6. 3.3.1 Counter A counter is a device which stores the number of times a particular event or process has occurred, usually in connection with a clock signal. Every counter requires a square wave clock signal to make them count. A square wave clock signal (as shown in figure 3) is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs) voltage, such as the output from a 555  astable timer. Here it comes from the pulse generator. Examples of counting are digital clocks, watches, timers found in a range of appliances from microwave ovens to VCRs and counters are also found in everything from automobiles to test equipments. There are mainly two types of counters: Ripple Counters In a ripple counter, there are a chain of flip-flops with the output of each flip flop forming the input for the next. Every time the input of the flip flop changes from high to low (on the falling edge), the state of the flip flop output changes. Ripple counters mostly count on the falling-edge which is the high to low transition of the clock signal. They use this edge as linking counters becomes easier as the most significant bit (MSB) of one counter can drive the clock input of the next. This whole process occurs because the next bit must change state when the previous bit changes from high to low the point at which a carry must occur to the next bit. The disadvantages of this counter are: There is a slight delay (known as a Ripple Delay) as the effect of the clock ripples through the chain of flip-flops. But in many circuits, this is not a problem as it is far too short to be seen on a display. In a logic system, the connection to the ripple counter outputs will cause false counts which may produce glitches in the logic system and thereby disrupt its operation. For example, a ripple counter changing from 0111 (7) to 1000 (8) will briefly show 0110 (6), 0100 (4) and 0000 (0) before 1000. Synchronous Counter A synchronous counter has a more complex internal structure as compared to a ripple counter. The advantage of this counter over the ripple counter is that it ensures that all its outputs change precisely together on each clock pulse, thereby avoiding the brief false counts which occur with ripple counters. Most synchronous counters count on the rising-edge (refer figure 5) which is the low to high transition of the clock signal. They usually have carry  out and carry  in pins for linking counters without introducing any ripple delays. These counters have a synchronous reset which occurs on the next clock pulse rather than immediately as in a ripple counter. Since reset must be performed on the maximum count required, it is a very important function. 3.3.1.1 Binary Ripple Counter (IC 7493) This is the counter used in the circuit. Figure 3 shows a clock signal driving a 4-bit (0-15) counter. It is connected with LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) to show the state of the clock and counter outputs QA QD. And Q indicates the output. A counter can be used to reduce the frequency of an input signal and thus behaves as a frequency division counter (as shown in figure 7), i.e. they can be used to reduce the frequency of an input (clock) signal. Each stage of a counter halves the frequency, so here the LED on the first output QA flashes at half the frequency of the clock LED, i.e. QA is 1/2, QB flashes at 1/4, QC at 1/8 and QD at 1/16 of the clock frequency. It is usually labeled as Q1, Q2 and so on. Qn is the nth stage of the counter, representing 2n. Division by numbers that are not powers of 2 is possible by resetting counters. Counters can be reset to zero before their maximum count by connecting one (or more) of their outputs to their reset input. The counter is in two sections: Clock A for QA and Clock B for QB, QC and QD. If the reset input is active-low a NOT or NAND gate will be required to produce a low output at the desired count. Active low is indicated by a line drawn above reset. For example:     (say reset-bar). The reset function requires an immediate reset on the next count. 3.3.1.2 Decade Counter (IC 7490): A decade counter (refer figure 8) is a binary counter that is designed to count to 10 or 1010 in binary, i.e. it counts the number of pulses arriving at its input. The number of pulses is counted up till 9 and it appears in binary form on four pins of the IC. When the tenth pulse arrives at the input, the binary output is reset to zero (0000) and a single pulse appears at another output pin. This function is performed due to the fact that the NAND output goes low, and resets the counter to zero. D going low can be a CARRY OUT signal, indicating that there has been a count of ten. So for ten pulses in the input, there is one pulse output. Therefore, the 7490 Decade Counter divides the frequency of the input by ten. And, if this pulse is applied to the input of a second 7490 decade counter, then the second IC will count the pulses from the first IC i.e. for 100 pulses input, there will be one pulse output. 3.3.2 Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483) The parallel adder precedes the binary counter, i.e. once the counter begins its count from 0 5, it then enters the adder where the binary 0001 is added to it. The central computational element in any circuit is the adder. The function of the parallel adder is to add two n bit numbers together. For this purpose, n full adders should be cascaded with each full adder representing a column in the long addition. The carry signals ripple through the adder from right to left. Figure 9 indicates the working of a logic full adder/ subtractor. The adder circuit has a mode control signal M which determines whether the circuit has to operate as an adder or a subtractor. Each XOR gate receives one input from M and the other input from B, i.e. Bi. The function of the XOR gate is that if both the inputs of the XOR gate is the same, then the output of the XOR gate will be zero and if both the inputs to the XOR gate are different, then the output of the XOR gate will be 1. When M = 0, the output of XOR gate will be Bi ⊕ 0 = Bi. Thus, the addition function takes place, i.e. the circuit performs A plus B (A + B). When M = 1, the output of XOR gate will be Bi ⊕ 1 = Bi. Since it is the complement of B, subtraction function takes place, i.e. A plus 1s complement of B which is the same as A minus B (A B). Every digit position consists of two operands and a carry. The operation of an adder is to add the two operands and the carry-in together. If the result is less than the base, this sum is outputted with a carry-out of 0. 0therwise the base is subtracted from the total of the two operands and the carry-in and this sum is outputted with a carry-out. 3.3.3 BCD 7 segment display decoder Here, the output of the Binary parallel adder forms the input for this BCD 7 segment decoder to display the random number from 1 6. The inputs A D for the BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) display driver are connected from the outputs of the parallel adder. The display driver consists of a network of logic gates to make its outputs a g become high or low. This lights the required segments a g of a 7-segment display as shown in the figure. Usually, a resistor is required in series with each segment to protect the LEDs, 330 or 270 is a suitable value for many displays with a 4.5V to 6V supply. But for this project, only one 270 resistor is used which is connected between 3 (display test) and 8 (ground) pins of the integrated circuit. There are two types of 7-segment displays: Common Cathode (CC or SC): This display consists of all the cathodes connected together. These need a display driver with outputs which become high to light each segment, i.e. they are illuminated with high voltages. For example the IC 4511. Here, there is a connection between the common cathode to 0V. IC 4511 is designed to drive a common cathode display and thus would not work with the common anode display. Common Anode (CA or SA): This display consists of all the LED anodes connected together. These need a display driver with outputs which become low to light each segment, i.e. they are illuminated by connecting with low voltages. For example, IC 7447 (BCD 7 segment decoder) which is the IC used for this project. Here, there is a connection of a resistor in series between the common anode to +Vs. The 7447 chip is used to drive 7 segment display. The input to the 7447 is a binary number DCBA where D is 8s (1000), C is 4s (0100), B is 2s (0010) and A is 1s (0001). The IC 7447 display is intended for BCD (binary coded decimal) which has input values from DCBA = 0000 (0) to DCBA = 1001 (9) (i.e. 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111, 1000, 1001 in binary). Inputs from 10 to 15 (1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111 in binary) will light odd display segments. The following functions can be performed on the IC 7447: This IC has an open collector outputs a g, which can sink up to 40mA. A lamp test can be performed on the IC to check if all the segments are in working condition. This is done by keeping the part of the IC low. At this point of time, all the display segments should light (showing number 8). There is another function which is the Blanking Input (). If the blank input is low, then the display will be blank when the count input is zero (0000). This can be used to blank leading zeros when there are several display digits driven by a chain of counters. The blank  output can be achieved by connecting the blank  input of the next display down the chain (i.e. the next most significant digit). Also, a function stands for Ripple Blanking Input. When is low and DCBA = 0000, the display is blank otherwise the number is displayed on the display. This is used to remove leading zeroes from a number. For example, displays 89 instead of 089. If more than one display has to be used, a connection of (Ripple Blanking Output) from most significant 7447 to the of the next 7447 has to be done. If a connection between of the least significant 7447 to 5V is done, the display will turn off when the number is 0. This circuit can also be controlled by a PLC (Programmable Logic Circuit), if the inputs to the BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) come from the 4 output bits of the PLC output card. Chapter 4:  Summary This chapter lists the achievements and developments of the project The following has been achieved in this project: Successful design and simulation of random number generation circuit along with the dice display Block Diagram of the Digital Dice game, circuit diagram for the display of random numbers from 1 6 on the 7 segment display. Successful assembly of wires, binary ripple counter (IC 7493), binary parallel adder (IC 7483), BCD 7 Segment display decoder (IC 7447). The development of this project is as follows. The digital dice game is currently being assembled, and post assembly, it will be used as a game to be played between two players.. Remaining circuit diagrams with more detail about the remaining parts of the block diagram will be designed.

The Truth about the Electoral College :: essays research papers

Since the foundation of America, the Electoral College has been the means of deciding the next president of the United States. Until the recent fiasco in the 2000 Florida presidential election, most people accepted the Electoral College as a fair way to decide a future president. In truth, the Electoral College has always been imbalanced and unfair. It was originally designed in Article II of the Constitution, so that each state receives an elector for every senator (two per state) and representative (number based on population). The way in which Electors were chosen was left up to the individual states. Each elector would vote for two candidates, and whoever received a simple majority (one half plus one votes) would become the next president. Whoever received the second most votes became vice president (Kimberling). After the Election of 1800, the Fourth Amendment introduced the idea of a vice president and president ticket. In addition, the amendment said that if a candidate did n ot receive an absolute majority in the Electoral College then the House of Representatives decided the next president. Presently all states choose their electors via statewide popular vote, and one presidential candidate receives all the electoral votes from each state (Kimberling). Upon close examination, it is easy to see the numerous flaws in the Electoral College. First, the most popular candidate does not necessarily win the presidency. Second, as it stands the Electoral College diminish voter turnout. Third, â€Å"faithless electors,† of which this country has had many, could decide an election. Lastly, the House of Representatives and, even an extreme case, the vice president can decide the president.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most obvious problem with the Electoral College is that a president can receive the majority of the votes and lose. In a true election the most popular candidate always wins. However, in America a candidate simply needs a one-vote majority in enough states to receive 270 electoral votes. Several times in the past, most notably in the Election of 1888 between Benjamin Harrison and Grover Cleveland, the minority candidate has won the Electoral College and therefore the election. A democracy is â€Å"a majority rule† (Dictionary.com). If a minority candidate can win an election, America is not a true democracy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Electoral College does not take into account voter turnout when assigning electors, thereby diminishing voter turnout and not giving each man one vote. Electors are assigned to states as the number representatives and senators change.

Anthropologie du Bo (Théorie et Pratique du gris-gris) :: French Essays

Anthropologie du Bo (Thà ©orie et Pratique du gris-gris) ABSTRACT: Subjective knowledge should not be separated from anthropology. But, unfortunately, this is the prevailing practice. The anthropology of Bo expresses the presence of Africa in anthropology. The authenticity of the African is found in his fervent practice of Bo. His thought, action, relations with others-his entire way of life-is based on the practice of Bo insofar as he wears Bo names. Bo is deeply rooted in his cultural values and comprises the background for all social organizations and thus acts as a social regulator. In Western anthropology there is a scientific mind; in African anthropology there is a Bo mentality that attempts to understand the world and then conquer it. Problà ©matique Le premier devoir de l'homme selon Socrate, est de se connaà ®tre soi-mà ªme. De philosophique cette connaissance est devenue anthropologique de nos jours. L'anthropologie est une science qui tend à   l'exclusion des autres, des autres hommes, des autres socià ©tà ©s, des autres cultures. L'homme qu'elle connaà ®t n'est pas un à ªtre abstrait, mais un homme concret, de tel continent, de telle race, de tel pays, de telle culture. C'est par exemple l'africain en gà ©nà ©ral ou le bà ©ninois en particulier. Ainsi nous allons au cours de ce vingtià ¨me (XXà ¨me) Congrà ¨s Mondial de Philosphie, rà ©flà ©chir sur l'homme en nous appuyant sur sa pratique du Bo (concept fon traduit en franà §ais par gris-gris). Dans l'Homme et l'adaptation au milieu, Renà © DUBOS à ©crit à   la page : "On a gà ©nà ©ralement tendance à   considà ©rer que les actività ©s scientifiques (recherches, etc...) sont à   mettre à   part de l'ensemble des manifestations de la vie humaine, et mà ªme qu'elles sont au-dessus ; cette tendance est dangeureuse pour l'humanità © ; elles risque mà ªme de freiner le progrà ¨s scientifique. En fait, vu les rapports à ©troits qui existent entre l'entreprise scientifique et la totalità © de la vie sociale, il est probable que la poursuite de la science ne sera possible que si les savants parviennent à   rattacher leur curiosità © professionnelle aux intà ©rà ªts et aux aspirations de l'humanità © en gà ©nà ©ral... Le choix des priorità ©s ne pourra plus se faire uniquement selon les crità ¨res de prà ©fà ©rence presonnelle ; de plus en plus il sera fonction des exigences de la socià ©tà ©. La science est comparable à   un organisme qui ne peut survi vre qu'en s'adaptant à   l'à ©volution de la socià ©tà © au sein de laquelle elle fonctionne". Cette longue citation de l'anthropologue amà ©ricain à ©claire d'une lumià ¨re vive nos prà ©occupations dans le choix de notre sujet "ANTHROPOLOGIE DU BO" (thà ©orie et pratique du gris-gris).

The Roles of School Counselor

The Roles of School Counselor Based on the counselor's log book listed 26 roles or responsibilities that must be done by a counselor. However, counselors are not necessarily bound by duties recorded because the scope of duties of a counselor is actually more than that. According to Mr. Zaifulnizam, role that can be played as a counselor must be based on knowledge of appropriate guidance and counseling so that they can deal with problems at school and managed to turn the actual functions of guidance and counseling.The main role of the counselor is responsible in order to expand the potential of each student, this is because guidance and counseling services are structured activities will help students to examine, evaluate and choose a realistic personal goal and to ensure that they are desire to achieve their goals. Counselor’s role is not only to help students identify and achieve their goals but encourage and guide students to identify the right direction of life.That’s mean counselor’s role is not only to students' academic performance only but a student's life as a whole in line with the philosophy of education. Mr. Zaifulnizam also stated, counselor also serves as a mediator between the outsider and the school. Outsiders can be parents, society and the authorities such as police. Therefore, the counselor is also responsible for preserve the reputation and good name of the school. Even, counselors also need to act as a mediator between teachers and students. In the some condition the teacher need assistance counselors to understand the students’.Mr. Zaifulnizam also said counselors must be well-informed as they also act as an informer to all school community because, the counselor will be referred if something important happen in the school. Counselor’s role is not only limited towards the counseling process alone but also serves to plan and implement school activities throughout the year, especially involving student affair s. In other words the counselors also serve as planners, implementers, motivator, and advisor for the school community. Types of Services ProvidedThe guidance and counseling unit (UBK) are responsible for providing and coordinating all activities and services supported by the curriculum and co-curriculum activities. According to the Ministry of Education (KPM) in the books of Implementation Guidelines, Guidance and Counseling Services in Schools have outlined several principles. Among other things, guidance and counseling is an educational process, a process that is planned and ongoing. In SMKPM, apart from the annual program of activities the UBK also provide some guidance and counseling program that is planned as follows: a) Counseling Services Counselors provide the guidance and counseling services for individuals or groups. Individual counseling is the process of counseling to students who have problems whether they come alone or who are referred by other teachers. students usua lly come in person to get the consultation is that students who excel in academics, while the case was referred by the other teachers involving students who have problems in school such as not completing their homework and have no interest in learning.But there are also cases where the counselors themselves will review student files such as academic file or discipline file and, where there are problems such as deterioration of academic achievement and student discipline misconduct, UBK themselves will call the student is to be consulted. Usually the individual counseling program is ongoing throughout the year. While Group Counseling is a process of group counseling in which all students usually have the same problem or issue for discussion.This is to enable students to understand the situation and acquire the ability to act and to overcome the discomfort experienced. In addition to counseling services also provide consultancy services to teachers who are always facing issues related to student behavior, student relations and matters of personality development of the students at the school. b) Personality development * The counselor will be requested to solve disciplinary problems. The school discipline will refer students who commit disciplinary offenses repeatedly to a counselor to resolve.Through individual counseling or group of students will be advised to change their attitudes according to the school rules. For example when there is a student who likes to bully their peers, the UBK will call for a consultation session, they will be given proper advice to the formation of their personal development towards a better and consequently remove the bad behavior. c) Motivation and learning skills * Students are given the guidance to keep their academic achievement. Counselor role to motivate students less confident of their abilities and given up with their academic performance.Counselors also play a role in guiding the students to acquire the skills to learn, ho w to control stress, time management skills and effective learning techniques and answering exam questions. Therefore the Guidance and Counseling Unit has planned special programs such as ‘Program Maju Diri’, ‘Program Teknik Menjawab Soalan’, and ‘Program Motivasi / Bijak Belajar PMR dan SPM’. d) Career Development Guidance * The Guidance and Counseling Unit provide a variety of programs for students to expose them to the working world.The main purpose of the program is to enable students to learn the things themselves so that the appropriate choice of careers can be made. Programs implemented are the ‘Program Hari Kerjaya' and the ‘Pameran Kerjaya’. Such programs usually emphasized on form five students. e) Orientation program to the new teachers * The Guidance and Counseling Unit also responsible in managing the orientation program for the new teachers. These programs are specific to the new teachers to familiarize themselv es with the school. f) Career development for teachers Responsible for handling the career enhancement programs for teachers. An example of career enhancement programs for teachers is LADAP (Latihan Dalam Perkhidmatan). Problem handled Problems handled by the guidance and counseling unit (UBK) in the scope of duties and responsibilities that must performed by a counselor. It involves any student in need of guidance and advice and has been classified these cases into eight categories such as Academic, personal, career, discipline, psychosocial, drug or cigarettes, family and HIV or Aids.The highest cases handled by UBK is discipline cases, most common discipline offense committed by the student is skipping school and modes of dress that does not comply with the school rules. These kinds of cases are usually referred by the school discipline unit. Discipline is the highest cases because it involves a lot repetitive cases such as truancy and absenteeism. The second highest cases involv es academic and career. Usually these cases are referred by teachers or students themselves voluntarily come to seek for advice, they usually have a good level of academic achievement.Family problem and students personal matter among the popular cases handled by the UBK. Most of the students in SMKPM are from middle-income families. This caused many of neglected children less attention from their parents because they are busy to earn for living. Some even came from a broken family and parents with problems that affect their children indirectly. This causes the children do not interested in studies and always skipping school. They are usually referred by the class teacher for advice and counseling. Sometimes there are also students themselves who come to seek for advice on personal problems.There are also the cases handled by UBK involving students who have problems in psychosocial. The psychosocial problems related with mental wellness of students such as spiritual and self-esteem. Such cases are usually referred by teachers or by parents themselves. Students who are involved in drugs and cigarettes were also handled by the UBK. Although drugs and cigarettes is not popular cases, the school authorities through UBK still take necessary precautions by conducting lot of programs that expose disadvantages of drugs and cigarettes to students. So far there has been no case of HIV and Aids.STATISTICS ON CASE (January – September 2012) Type of Cases| Num. of Cases| Academic| 56| Personal| 20| Career| 47| Discipline| 113| Psychosocial| 13| Drug/Cigarettes| 6| Family| 23| HIV/Aids| 0| Total| 278| The pie chart above shows the percentage of cases handled by UBK. Discipline cases showed the highest record. Apart from discipline, other popular cases handled by UBK are academic and career of the students. While there were no cases of HIV and Aids. All the cases are for the whole month of January to September of 2012. Statistics for the cases above refers to the morni ng school session only.

Imagination vs Reality in Literature Essay

â€Å"Aren’t grown-ups supposed to read realistic fiction? What good are these wild tales, anyway? † (â€Å"Speculative† 200). In author Vandana Singh’s â€Å"A Speculative Manifesto†, she describes how important speculative fiction is in the education of students in literature. Speculative fiction is combination of several different genres of literature, such as mystery, science fiction, historical fiction and fantasy. Vandana Singh asks in her manifesto if education is based on the truth then â€Å"[w]hy not discard the old myths, legends, tall tales, and their modern counterparts, as we discard other childish things† (200). Vandana Singh believes that both children and adults need the literature for their imagination. In the manifesto, she describes who imagination allows us as humans to dream. Although science fiction and fantasy can also help ones with their imagination, through our imagination we can make up â€Å"ingenious thought-experiments, through asking ‘what-if’ questions and attempt[] to answer them† (202). According to Vandana Singh, speculative fiction allows us to question our lives and â€Å"live out possible futures before we come to them† (202). Speculative fiction and feminist literature can be intertwined together to make stories as well. Vandana Singh uses a blend of these two literature genres in order to write her short story The Woman Who Thought She Was A Planet. Although these two genres may be viewed as two separate pieces of literature, Vandana Singh uses her imagination and her background in her Indian culture to create the story. In one of Vandana Singh’s short stories, The Woman Who Thought She Was A Planet, she uses her speculative fiction beliefs and her imagination to describe a story about a woman going through â€Å"changes†. This story starts off at the kitchen table where Ramnath Mishra is partaking in his usual morning routine when his wife announced, â€Å"’I know at last what I am. I am a planet’† (39). Shocked and confused about his wife’s announcement, Ramnath believed that his wife, Kamala, had merely lost her mind. Ramnath believed that the only way for his wife to get better was to phone the doctor, however Kamala did not think she was ill. Kamala states to Ramnath, â€Å"’I am a planet. I used to be a human, a woman, a wife and mother’† (40). Ramnath could not understand how he did not actually know the person whom he has lived with for the past forty years, â€Å"[s]he looked like a stranger† (43). He thought that a planet has to be â€Å"an inanimate object circling a star† and that there was no way Kamala, a human, could be a planet (40). Living in an Indian culture, Ramnath was extremely embarrassed by his wife’s actions. She constantly tried to undress her clothes because she believed that planets do not need a sari. As Ramnath described how his great aunt went mad, â€Å"[w]hat a terrible dishonor the family had suffered, what indignity† (41). He worried that Kamala was going to create great embarrassment, not only for him but for his family’s name as well. At night, Ramnath found himself wishing Kamala dead, even began plotting different ways for going about killing her, â€Å"[h]e could not live like this† (46). One evening, as Kamala was sleeping, Ramnath noticed that she seemed to be coughing something up, which was exciting for Ramnath because he believed that she was going to die on her own, without his help. Moments later, Ramnath observed some â€Å"jelly-like† substance coming out of her mouth. He realized that this substance was made up of â€Å"small, moving things† (47). These â€Å"aliens† began pouring out of Kamala’s mouth attacking Ramnath, but not waking Kamala. In the morning, still terrified by what happened last night, Ramnath laid in bed until his wife woke up. Once awake, she explained that if she knew what was happening she would have explained to these creatures not to hurt him. Kamala explained to Ramnath that these creatures were â€Å"inhabitants† and reminded him that she is a planet. Kamala then went on to describe how the younger â€Å"inhabitants† were trying to colonized and asked Ramnath to be a planet with her. Kamala explained to Ramnath that â€Å"[a] planet needs sun†¦ My journey is just beginning† (50). Later, Ramnath and Kamala went on a walk, where Kamala ran into the park where there was a man selling balloons, which she is fascinated by. After being captivated by the way the balloons floated into the sky when letting them go, Kamala began â€Å"[s]lowly and majestically†¦ rise over the ground† (52). Her clothing slowly began to fall from the sky, as she was rotating and floated higher and higher. â€Å"For a moment [Ramnath] almost envied her† as she floated into the starts, he ran into the house and as he went to scream, â€Å"the insectoids were already marching up his back, over his shoulder and into his terrified, open mouth† (54). In an interview, Vanadana Singh was asked what her appeal to speculative fiction was, her response being, â€Å"[t]he best speculative fiction demands a boldness of imagination and a vastness of scope that no other literature can offer (Tan). In Vandana Singh’s short story, The Woman Who Thought She Was A Planet, it is shown that her imagination was used enormously in order to not only come up with the story, but to use such great detail. Speculative fiction, â€Å"with its aliens and magic and warp drives, set against the backdrop of the universe itself. † (â€Å"Manifesto† 203). In the interview, Vandana Singh also adds that â€Å"the sense of wonder that [speculative fiction] evokes, the engagement with ideas, and the fact that it provides a two-way mirror for looking at the world one wonders why everyone doesn’t read the stuff† (Tan). Not only does Vandana Singh’s short story, The Woman Who Thought She Was A Planet, use great imagination, it also includes the truths behind the Indian culture in marriage. The man of the house is the â€Å"leader† of the family. Also this story shows how it is extremely embarrassing for a woman to not only get nude in public, but in the house. The Woman Who Thought She Was A Planet is a wonderful example of a piece of feminist literature. Feminist Literature is described as a question of women’s role in society and complex conceptions of gender. In this short story, it shows that Kamala was trying to become her own woman. She believed that there were â€Å"inhabits† inside of her. She routinely attempted to take her clothing off, which infuriated Ramnath and also embarrassed him to an extreme end. An additional example of how The Woman Who Thought She Was A Planet was used for feminist critique is that it shows that in other cultures besides our own, woman are always trying to be themselves and not have to be held down to the â€Å"norms† that are expected of them. Although in this story Kamala may not have been able to control her actions completely, it shows the way the Indian culture views people when they act out and how one little action can be viewed as such an embarrassment. Works Cited Singh, Vandana. A Speculative Manifesto. Framingham: n. p. , 2008. 200-04. Print. Singh, Vandana. The Woman Who Thought She Was a Planet: And Other Stories. New Delhi, India: Zubaan, in Collaboration with Penguin India, 2008. 39-54. Print. Tan, Charles. â€Å"The World SF Blog. † The World SF Blog. The World SF Blog, 2012. Web. 10 Oct. 2013. .